We will begin this discussion with a subject familiar to most Anritsu customers: scalar network analysis. After showing comparisons, we will proceed to the fundamentals of network analyzer terminology and techniques. This discussion serves as an introduction to topics presented in greater detail later in this section. This discussion will touch on new concepts that include the following:

Network Analyzers do everything that scalar analyzers do except display absolute power, although absolute power can be displayed on a network analyzer through the use of a receiver calibration. In addition, they add the ability to measure the phase characteristics of microwave devices and allow greater dynamic range.

If all a Network Analyzer added was the capability for measuring phase characteristics, its usefulness would be limited. While phase measurements are important in themselves, it is the availability of this phase information that unlocks many new features for complex measurements. These features include Smith Charts, Time Domain, and Group Delay. Phase information also allows greater accuracy through vector error correction of the measured signal.

First, let us look at scalar network analyzers (SNAs). SNAs measure microwave signals by converting them to a DC voltage using a diode detector (Figure: Scalar Analyzer Detection). This DC voltage is proportional to the magnitude of the incoming signal. The detection process, however, ignores any information regarding the phase of the microwave signal.

In a network analyzer, access is needed to both the magnitude and phase of a microwave signal. There are several different ways to perform the measurement. The method Anritsu employs (called Harmonic Sampling or Harmonic Mixing) is to down-convert the signal to a lower intermediate frequency (IF). This signal can then be measured directly by a tuned receiver. The tuned receiver approach gives the system greater dynamic range. The system is also much less sensitive to interfering signals, including harmonics.

The network analyzer is a tuned receiver (Figure: Network Analyzer as a Tuned Receiver). The microwave signal is down converted into the pass band of the IF. To measure the phase of this signal, we must have a reference to compare it with. If the phase of a signal is 90 degrees, it is 90 degrees different from the reference signal (Figure: Signals with a 90 Degree Phase Difference). The network analyzer would read this as –90 degrees, since the test signal is delayed by 90 degrees with respect to the reference signal.

This phase reference can be obtained by splitting off some of the microwave signal before the measurement (Figure: Splitting the Microwave Signal).

 

 

 

The phase of the microwave signal after it has passed through the device under test (DUT) is then compared with the reference signal. A network analyzer test set automatically samples the reference signal, so no external hardware is needed.

Let us consider for a moment that you remove the DUT and substitute a length of transmission line (Figure: Split Signal where a Length of Line Replaces the DUT). Note that the path length of the test signal is longer than that of the reference signal. Now let us see how this affects our measurement.

Assume that we are making a measurement at 1 GHz and that the difference in path-length between the two signals is exactly 1 wavelength. This means that test signal is lagging the reference signal by 360 degrees (Figure: Split Signal where Path Length is Different by Exactly One Wavelength).We cannot really tell the difference between one sine wave maxima and the next (they are all identical), so the network analyzer would measure a phase difference of 0 degrees.

Now consider that we make this same measurement at 1.1 GHz. The frequency is higher by 10 percent so therefore the wavelength is shorter by 10 percent. The test signal path length is now 0.1 wavelength longer than that of the reference signal (Figure: Split Signal where Path Length is Longer than One Wavelength). This test signal is:

This is 36 degrees different from the phase measurement at 1 GHz. The network analyzer will display this phase difference as –36 degrees. The test signal at 1.1 GHz is delayed by 36 degrees more than the test signal at 1 GHz.

You can see that if the measurement frequency is 1.2 GHz, we will get a reading of –72 degrees, –108 degrees for 1.3 GHz, etc. (Figure: Electrical Delay). There is an electrical delay between the reference and test signals. For this delay we will use the common industry term of reference delay.

You also may hear it called phase delay. In older network analyzers you had to equalize the length of the reference arm with that of the test arm to make an appropriate measurement of phase vs. frequency.

To measure phase on a DUT, we want to remove this phase-change-vs.-frequency due to changes in the electrical length. This will allow us to view the actual phase characteristics. These characteristics may be much smaller than the phase change due to electrical length difference.

 

There are two ways of accomplishing this. The most obvious way is to insert a length of line into the reference signal path to make both paths of equal length (Figure: Split Signal where Paths are of Equal Length).With perfect transmission lines and a perfect splitter, we would then measure a constant phase as we change the frequency. The problem using this approach is that we must change the line length with each measurement setup.

Another approach is to handle the path length difference in software. Figure: Phase Difference Increases Linearly with Frequency displays the phase-vs.-frequency of a device. This device has different effects on the output phase at different frequencies. Because of these differences, we do not have a perfectly linear phase response. We can easily detect this phase deviation by compensating for the linear phase. The size of the phase difference increases linearly with frequency so we can modify the phase display to eliminate this delay.

The VectorStar MS4640A-Series VNA offers automatic reference delay compensation with the push of a button. Figure: Resultant Phase with Path Length shows the resultant measurement when we compensate path length. In a system application you can usually correct for length differences; however, the residual phase characteristics are critical.

Now let us consider measuring the DUT. Consider a two port device; that is, a device with a connector on each end. What measurements would be of interest?

First, we could measure the reflection characteristics at either end with the other end terminated into 50 ohms. If we designate one end as the normal place for the input that gives a reference, we can then define the reflection characteristics from the reference end as forward reflection, and those from the other end as reverse reflection (Figure3-14).

Second, we can measure the forward and reverse transmission characteristics. However, instead of saying “forward,” “reverse,” “reflection,” and “transmission” all the time, we use a shorthand. That is all that S-parameters are, a shorthand! The “S” stands for scattering. The second number is the device port that the signal is being injected into, while the first is the device port that the signal is leaving. S11, therefore, is the signal being injected into port 1 relative to the signal leaving port 1. The four scattering parameters (Figure: S-Parameters) are:

S-parameters can be displayed in many ways. An S-parameter consists of a magnitude and a phase. We can display the magnitude in dB, just like a scalar network analyzer. We often call this term log magnitude. We can display phase as “linear phase” (Figure: Linear Phase with Frequency Waveform). As discussed earlier, we cannot tell the difference between one cycle and the next. Therefore, after going through 360 degrees, we are back to where we began. We can display the measurement from –180 to +180 degrees. The –180 to +180 approach is more common. It keeps the display discontinuity removed from the important 0 degree area used as the phase reference.

 

There are several ways in which all the information can be displayed on one trace.